Thursday, November 28, 2019

Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington

Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington Arthur Wellesley was born in Dublin, Ireland in late April or early May 1769, and was the fourth son of Garret Wesley, Earl of Mornington and his wife Anne. Though initially educated locally, Wellesley later attended Eton (1781-1784), before receiving additional schooling in Brussels, Belgium. After a year at the French Royal Academy of Equitation, he returned to England in 1786. As the family was short on funds, Wellesley was encouraged to pursue a military career and was able to use connections to the Duke of Rutland to secure an ensigns commission in the army. Serving as an aide-de-camp to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Wellesley was promoted to lieutenant in 1787. While serving in Ireland, he decided to enter politics and was elected to the Irish House of Commons representing Trim in 1790. Promoted to captain a year later, he fell in love with Kitty Packenham and sought her hand in marriage in 1793. His offer was declined by her family and Wellesley elected to refocus on his career. As such, he first purchased a majors commission in the 33rd Regiment of Foot before buying the lieutenant colonelcy in September 1793. Arthur Wellesleys First Campaigns India In 1794, Wellesleys regiment was ordered to join the Duke of Yorks campaign in Flanders. Part of the French Revolutionary Wars, the campaign was an attempt by coalition forces to invade France. Taking part in the Battle of Boxtel in September, Wellesley was horrified by the campaigns poor leadership and organization. Returning to England in early 1795, he was promoted to colonel a year later. In mid-1796, his regiment received orders to sail for Calcutta, India. Arriving the following February, Wellesley was joined in 1798 by his brother Richard who had been appointed Governor-General of India. With the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1798, Wellesley took part in the campaign to defeat the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Performing well, he played a key role in the victory at the Battle of Seringapatam in April-May, 1799. Serving as the local governor after the British triumph, Wellesley was promoted to brigadier general in 1801. Elevated to major general a year later, he led British forces to victory in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Honing his skills in the process, he badly defeated the enemy at Assaye, Argaum, and Gawilghur.​ Returning Home For his efforts in India, Wellesley was knighted in September 1804. Returning home in 1805, he took part in the failed Anglo-Russian campaign along the Elbe. Later that year and due to his new status, he was permitted by the Packenhams to marry Kitty. Elected to Parliament from Rye in 1806, he later was made a privy councilor and appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland. Taking part in the British expedition to Denmark in 1807, he led troops to victory at the Battle of Kà ¸ge in August. Promoted to lieutenant general in April 1808, he accepted command of a force intended to attack the Spanish colonies in South America. To Portugal Departing in July 1808, Wellesleys expedition was instead directed to the Iberian Peninsula to aid Portugal. Going ashore, he defeated the French at Rolià §a and Vimeiro in August. After the latter engagement, he was superseded in command by General Sir Hew Dalrymple who concluded the Convention of Sintra with the French. This permitted the defeated army to return to France with their plunder with Royal Navy providing transportation. As a result of this lenient agreement, both Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. The Peninsular War Facing the board, Wellesley was cleared as he had only signed the preliminary armistice under orders. Advocating for a return to Portugal, he lobbied the government showing that it was a front on which the British could effectively fight the French. In April 1809, Wellesley arrived at Lisbon and began preparing for new operations. Going on the offensive, he defeated Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult at the Second Battle of Porto in May and pressed into Spain to unite with Spanish forces under General Gregorio Garcà ­a de la Cuesta. Defeating a French army at Talavera in July, Wellesley was forced to withdraw when Soult threatened to cut his supply lines to Portugal. Short on supplies and increasingly frustrated by Cuesta, he retreated by into Portuguese territory. In 1810, reinforced French forces under Marshal Andrà © Massà ©na invaded Portugal forcing Wellesley to retreat behind the formidable Lines of Torres Vedras. As Massà ©na was unable to break through the lines a stalemate ensued. After remaining in Portugal for six months, the French were forced to retreat in early 1811 due to sickness and starvation. Advancing from Portugal, Wellesley laid siege to Almeida in April 1811. Advancing to the citys aid, Massà ©na met him at the Battle of Fuentes de Oà ±oro in early May. Winning a strategic victory, Wellesley was promoted to general on July 31. In 1812, he moved against the fortified cities of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Storming the former in January, Wellesley secured the latter after a bloody fight in early April. Pushing deeper into Spain, he won a decisive victory over Marshal Auguste Marmont at the Battle of Salamanca in July. Victory in Spain For his triumph, he was made Earl then Marquess of Wellington. Moving on to Burgos, Wellington was unable to take the city and was forced to retreat back to Ciudad Rodrigo that fall when Soult and Marmont united their armies. In 1813, he advanced north of Burgos and switched his supply base to Santander. This move forced the French to abandon Burgos and Madrid. Outflanking the French lines, he crushed the retreating enemy at the Battle of Vitoria on June 21. In recognition of this, he was promoted to field marshal. Pursuing the French, he laid siege to San Sebastin in July and defeated Soult at Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Invading France, Wellington drove Soult back after victories at the Nive and Orthez before hemming the French commander in at Toulouse in early 1814. After bloody fighting, Soult, having learned of Napoleons abdication, agreed to an armistice. The Hundred Days Elevated to Duke of Wellington, he first served as ambassador to France before becoming first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna. With Napoleons escape from Elba and subsequent return to power in February 1815, Wellington raced to Belgium to take command of the Allied army. Clashing with the French at Quatre Bras on June 16, Wellington withdrew to a ridge near Waterloo. Two days later, Wellington and Field Marshal Gebhard von Blà ¼cher decisively defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. Later Life With the end of the war, Wellington returned to politics as Master-General of the Ordnance in 1819. Eight years later he was made Commander-in-Chief of the British Army. Increasingly influential with the Tories, Wellington became prime minister in 1828. Though staunchly conservative, he advocated for and granted Catholic Emancipation. Increasingly unpopular, his government fell after only two years. He later served as foreign secretary and minister without portfolio in the governments of Robert Peel. Retiring from politics in 1846, he retained his military position until his death. Wellington died at Walmer Castle on September 14, 1852 after suffering a stroke. Following a state funeral, he was buried at St. Pauls Cathedral in London near Britains other hero of the Napoleonic Wars, Vice Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson.

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Cuttlefish and Squid Jets of the Ocean essays

Cuttlefish and Squid Jets of the Ocean essays When most people think of marine life, they imagine fish-like creatures, swimming through the deep waters with a swish of the fin. However, there is another class of animal that uses a very different form of locomotion. Instead of the more common "finned" animals, these creatures use a kind of jet propulsion to movea method of locomotion that is surprisingly effective. Two of these animals are the squid and the The squid is one of the fastest animals that use jet propulsion.[1]Indeed, the squid is so fast that it can reach speeds of up to 30km/h.[2] The actual mechanism by which the squid moves in this way is by expanding their muscular mantle and filling it with water. The animal then contracts this mantle, expelling the water forcefully through an opening known as a siphon. Interestingly, the squid controls its direction by changing the direction of the siphon. The cuttlefish uses jet propulsion as well in its locomotion by drawing water through its mantle opening and contracting the muscles in that mantle (like the squid), while making a tight seal around the head, allowing the water to be forced through the funnel in a jet. Further, like the squid, the cuttlefish can move its valve opening through which the jet flows in any direction, allowing it to control its direction. However, the Jet propulsion is a very interesting form of locomotion for marine life. Indeed, many consider it to be the inspiration for the modern marine jet engine (as well as the air jet engine). Although many forget that not all of the "swimming" marine animals use fins to swim, the squid and the cuttlefish are excellent examples of the diversity of the sea. [1] http://wings.avkids.com/Curriculums/Marine/dissecting_summary.html [2] oceanworld.com.au/factfile.asp'ID=9 ...

Thursday, November 21, 2019

English court hierarchy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English court hierarchy - Essay Example There are two main questions that need to be asked and answered in this case; (i) whether Edward's acceptance of David's offer is binding on David, and (ii) whether David's revocation of his offer is effective against EdwardAn offer is made when a person makes a definite promise to do or to abstain from doing something and it becomes binding when it is accepted by whom it is addressed to An offer may be either verbal and written. In this case, David's action by writing to Edward on 1st December offering to sell him a range of office supplies would constitute a written offer.An acceptance is where the offeree indicates his assent to the offer by words or conduct. The general rule is that an acceptance must be communicated to the person making the offer1. If the person making the offer prescribes the specific manner in which the acceptance must be conveyed, then the acceptance must follow such prescribed manner2. David had not indicated in his offer of the manner that the acceptance is to be conveyed and as such Edward's action of writing to David on 14 December accepting his offer would tantamount to a valid acceptance.Communication of acceptance is binding on the offeror when the acceptor puts his acceptance in a course of transmission to the offeror in such a manner that is beyond the acceptor's control. When Edward puts his acceptance letter in the post at 3.00 p.m. on 14 December, this would tantamount to an act of communicating his acceptance to David of his offer. Once the acceptance letter is in the post, it is no longer within Edward's control and the Postal Rule would be applicable in this case i.e. where acceptance by post is an appropriate and reasonable means of communication between the parties, then acceptance is complete as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted, even if the letter is delayed, destroyed or lost in the post so that it never reaches the offeror3. The postal rule applies to communications of acceptance by cable, including telegra m, but not to instantaneous modes such as telephone, telex and fax. It is submitted that acceptance by Edward of David's offer is completed upon Edward putting the acceptance letter in the post. However, the facts of the case also state that David had in fact revoked his offer to Edward by sending him a telegram at 3.00 p.m. on 14 December. A revocation is one of the ways to terminate an offer and it is the withdrawal of an offer before acceptance. The offer may be revoked by the offeror at any time until it is accepted. However, the revocation of the offer must be communicated to the offeree. Unless and until the revocation is so communicated, it is ineffective4. When David sent a telegram to Edward at 3.00 p.m. on 14 December, this would tantamount to an action of communicating the revocation of his offer to Edward in a manner that is beyond David's control and in the case of telegram, as mentioned above, the Postal Rule would also be applicable. In this case, both communication of acceptance and communication of revocation were sent at the same time and on the same date. The issue would be which of these two would prevail. It is submitted that this would depend on which communication would come to the knowledge of the intended party first. If the acceptance so communicated by Edward comes to the knowledge of David before Edward knows that David has sent a revocation notice, Edward's acceptance would be binding on David. On the other hand, if the revocation notice so communicated by David reaches Edward before David knows about the acceptance, David's revocation notice of the offer would be effective against Edward. Part III - Tort Speedy-Fit's potential liability for the injuries suffered by Jennifer, Toby and Molly would depend on whether it can be established that Speedy-Fit owes a duty to take care5 and that the injuries suffered by the victims was caused by breach of Speedy-Fit of its duty. The burden of